The association psychology is a psychology practice that tries to explain things in a simple and provable, hence arises the term of empiricism .
The analysis of the human frame s. XVIII
| Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was professor of philosophy at the University of Königsberg, Germany. His most famous work "The Critique of Pure Reason" appeared in 1781. Kant remained unmarried and lived a life methodically and smoothly. An author very concerned about human thought and how we know that there is actually said priori knowledge about the reality of things and then our mind adds its own order to the sensations ( a posteriori knowledge ), we have a passive mind. He said that there should be a distinction between a phenomenon and noumenon . The first refers to an idea or perception, is the way things appear to us in the mind. The noumenon, by contrast, refers to the "thing-in-itself", the actual existence of an object. This differentiation suggests that we can never know reality directly, we are prisoners of our sense organs and perceptions of our mind. |
Kant's disciples are the psychologists of consciousness : as the Scottish philosopher William Hamilton(1788-1856), psychology should investigate the phenomena of consciousness by external observation and statistics. Johan Herbert (1776-1841), another disciple Kant and substitute in his chair at Königsberg (Germany) makes an important contribution by saying that "what we have in consciousness varies continuously". We can not withhold or a thought, or a state of mind, there is nothing that remains. All there is in consciousness flows over time, not in space, and science can not do something that is constantly changing, which has no stability. At this historic moment are also a number of Scottish authors as Thomas Reid (1710-1796), which raises the question of how I can be sure that what I see and feel is real, not a hallucination. The answer given to this question is that we recognize thanks to common sense . To this school is called the Common Sense School . Moreover, Dougald Stewart (1753-1828) highlights the importance of care and mental. When multiple sounds, people, objects, focus our attention on one thing, which is the figure and the rest for us will be the background , which is in the background, which is constantly changing. Attention is something that varies and with it our perception and motivation. Finally, Destutt Tracy (1754-1836) makes the contribution of intuition in our thinking, which is a kind of sixth sense, the person knows something, but can not say why I know or on what basis this knowledge.
Creating psychophysics s. XIX
So far we have seen that psychology is a mixture between philosophy and physiology. The psychophysicsattempts to find a relationship between our feelings and the physical quantities.
The Positivism is a school that believes that all sciences, including psychology, must show their descubrimienos with mathematical formulas, everything must be expressed in numbers to be measured and tested. The physiologist J. Müller (1801-1858) is known for writing a book considered essential for medical students: " General Treaty of Physiology ", which says no more than physiologist psychologist. According to him, our feelings come through the senses and the nerves that transmit stimuli captured by our body. Given equal stimuli, sensations are different because the senses are.
There are two types of meaning: those who see outside information or exteroceptors and inside that capture or proprioceptors . Among the latter are the kinesthetic that informs us about the state of our musculoskeletal system, the kinesthetic that informs the general state of our bodies and those of orientation and balance that tell us if we are oriented with respect to the other bodies.
Müller described three types of thresholds within stimuli uptake: the maximum magnitude of the stimulus or from which did not experience any change in sensation above certain values, the minimum that is the minimum magnitude or amount of stimulation need to capture a feeling and the differential , which is the amount to be added to that we capture a change in sensation.
Ernst Weber concluded that if we divide the increase required to reach a magnitude of the same magnitude, we get a constant amount called K Weber . Gustav Fechner Weber continued studies and concluded that to calculate the increase in a sense, multiply a proportionality constant by increasing the size and divide it by that same magnitude. But what initially was believed to be very important, then saw that it was not and these formulas were deprecated.
D uring the nineteenth century a transformation occurs in Europe with the industrial revolution and the creation of the first factories in addition to the significant migration of rural people to the cities. parallel arisesDescriptive Psychology is based on the description phenomena. One of its leading figures was the English psychologist John Stuar Mill (1862-1873), a great economist. He wanted to understand the mind and analyzed from empiricism and associationism.
He said that the mind is formed by experience feelings and then turn to the experiences, to what we experience. Descriptive psychology ago as a description of feelings. |
Alexander Bain (1812-1903) was another author who in 1855 wrote " The Senses and Intelligence"European high-impact, which defined two kinds of people: The emotional (governed by emotions and vibrate for anything and often can not control their emotions) and intellectual (as analyze and rationalize everything, is self-monitored and rarely allow their emotions to float).
As was also associative, defines two new laws of association of ideas: the relativity where our mental states are related because they depend on each point of the previous situation and dissemination ranging from organic to psychological and vice versa.
Herman Lotze (1812-1881) was a German physician. It was the first teacher who taught classical psychology of perception and attention. Thought for Lotze covers everything means that perceptions thought constructs that give it meaning. The things we see with our eyes are unconnected data, but then our mind constructs the "story" of what we see to make sense.
The evolution in Psychology
The evolution starts mid-nineteenth century and affects all sciences (medicine, biology, ...). As of this moment will be evolutionary psychology. The man is a piece of the world, an element, not the center of everything.
Appears functionalism , which defines the behavior or conduct as adaptation to the environment. An animal that is not adapted to the environment, disappears. The best suited are the strongest. There is also thecomparative psychology or animal psychology says that there are no major differences between human and animal behavior. And finally we have the differential psychology that what is important is the adaptation, each person adapts differently, according to their characteristics, in the same circumstance, therefore tells us that if we adapt differently, it is because we are different.
| But the real contribution of the time was that of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an Anglican priest Protestant. He made a trip around the world that lasted some four years gathering information from animal and plant species.When it came to the Galapagos species found only existed there, due to a certain environment that made them evolve differently. Therefore, different conditions and circumstances, we would be different and always the product of evolution. |
For Darwin the man comes from a less evolved species, primate, thanks to a small change we have differentiated chromosome. All these skills are reflected in his work " The selection of species . "
Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton (1822-1911) after reading his work, to apply this knowledge to psychology, specifically the study of intelligence. He was the first to use statistical observations. Measures the intelligence of many people in Europe and the average applying Gauss Bell, most people are in the center and around, but a few are well below or above the average. For Galton the most important factor of intelligence is genetic, much more than environmental.
The social orientation of Psychology
With the industrial revolution due to the huge increase in technology and the emergence of the steam engines that replace the workers in their jobs, many people become unemployed, resulting in a significant social problems. Clusters are formed as unions, political parties, associations, etc.. requiring assess the new situation in a new and different. People must adapt, as Darwin said, only the strong survive. There is very rich and very poor people without social resources.
In Germany also began to study folk psychology or Ethnological Psychology , which notes the various peoples and races and their sense of nationalism. They say every town has a common spirit.
On the other hand, Hyppolite Taine (1818-1883) French psychologist, contributed the idea that the environment has a huge influence on personality. For him to stop studying psychology phenomena as the will or memory and focus on observable facts: the behavior.
The constitution of Contemporary Psychology
L to scientific psychology appears with the first laboratory of psychology 1879, created by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a professor of medicine and physiology at the University of Leipzig German, who wished to know both the physiological and the philosophical forming the basis of psychology. He was the founder of structuralism. In this laboratory study the sensations to a very elementary level, such as heat and cold. He wrote the book "Foundations of Physiological Psychology "one of the most cited books in psychology. For Wundt there are two essential aspects in behavior: the objective (what we see and feel) and subjective (how we perceive what we perceive).
With this new experimental psychology for the first time described the reaction time, which is what it takes for the body to react to a given stimulus. Also discover the first locations brain basis of behavior and somatic the idea of mental illness as brain disease, something physiological. Wundt was an individual with vast intellectual interests. For example, between 1900 and 1920 published a ten-volume work entitled Psychology of peoples, in examining the psychological development of humanity.
Appears also a psychology based on understanding hand Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1910), although this would be much less experimental than the last. Study the contribution culture makes to psychology, was also interested in the laws governing human consciousness. Want to understand the behavior from motivational processes (the most important reason is the life and value), cognitive processes (intelligence) and personality processes (which is the unity of all our feelings and psychic phenomena).
It is also at this time that William James (1842-1910), brother of the famous writer Henry James and professor of medicine, philosophy and psychology, made an important contribution concerning mental life. Discussed the afferents are communications that occur between the inside and outside of the body, and theefferent response that are exerted by the body from the inside outward to a stimulus.To James consciousness is a product of evolution, constantly changing and flowing. He also described three parts of personality: the Me or I item (my body), the My social (the people around us as family, friends, etc.) and the My spiritual (what I think, my thoughts and feelings).
The development of Experimental Psychology
Early studies on memory start from Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909). His major work " On Memory "is where studies are reflected measuring their capacity to store under a rigorous experimental method. He first worked with memorizing nonsense syllables, so that the meaning of words could not be of help and then went on to syllables with meaning, and concluded that memory was practically equal in one case as in the other. It found that 12 syllables need to memorize 6'8 sec. / Syllable, but to learn 24 time is more than doubled, 17'6 sec. / Syllable. He said that to learn something new to forget something old, this led to the questioning and behavioral tests as quickly forgotten when we prepare the following. At first extremely quickly forget and then we do it more slowly, but we never completely forget everything, there is always a bit in memory. When trying to remember something many times these memories are deformed, and this is because we tend to simplify and regularize the remembered, because we establish logical relationships between disjointed memories and because affective factors involved in each.
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The creator of the first studies on intelligence was Alfred Binet (1857-1910), initially first vocation was to the right and began studying psychology to 37 years old. At the end of s.Century the French government required all children to enroll in school, so Binet was commissioned to make some tests to find out which children had delays. These tests were spent at school between 3 and 15 years and called Intelligence Tests . Used a statistical criterion to measure intelligence and called Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which is calculated by dividing the mental age between chronological age and multiplying by one hundred.
In 1916 these tests were translated into English and renamed Stanford Test (because it resulted in this University) or Stanford-Binet test.
Russian reflexological Psychology
E sta psychology has a very physiological perspective, everything that exists is material and this is called monism : there is only one reality, which is the item.
Ivan Sechenov (1822-1905), physician and physiologist, was interested in knowing what he called the reflexes of the brain (that's why they call this psychology reflexology). There are involuntary reflexes, as when we introduced something in your eye and blink instinctively, and others who are volunteers.Publish the book " The Brain Reflections "which says that psychology should be studied by a psychologist, physiologist with scientific methods. On the contrary this author leaves very little experimental work.
But the most prominent figure of this psychology was certainly Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist (disciple of Sechenov), winner of the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the functioning of the digestive glands. He worked experimentally and controlled with dogs, which incomunicaba outside the laboratory that was passed to call "the towers ofsilence. "His studies led him to be interested in what he called psychic secretions , ie, those produced by the salivary glands without direct stimulation of food in the mouth. Pavlov noticed that when in the experimental situation a dog listening treads person who usually come to feed, salivating before actually being offered food, however, if the footprints were a stranger, the dog salivated. These observations inspired him to conduct numerous studies that were the basis of Conditioning Classic. never considered a psychologist, and until the end of his days he said he was a physiologist.
Another Russian scientist, Vladimir Bechterew (1857-1927) sets the schema underlying psychology of man there is a stimulus that comes to our body then produces the response: Stimulus-Organism-Response , is like a chain. Another important thing that this author brings the concept of environmental situation , depending on the situation and time when we meet our behavior will be different.To analyze this looks at the chandeliers, the fabric that makes a spider depends on their environmental situation, if there is plenty of food will be small because the fabric will be easy to hunt well, whereas if food is scarce, you have to make a large cloth order to be more successful in his capture.
| Psychoanalysis S igmund Freud (1856-1939), founder of psychoanalysis was born in Freiberg, to Jewish parents. He moved to Vienna where he studied medicine specializing in neuropathology, particularly in infantile paralysis and speech problems such as aphasia. For those times the Jews could not work in public institutions such as hospitals, nor teach at the University, so was at a private consultation. |
Its passage psychopathology occurred when he met Jean-Martin Charcot , physician specializing in nervous diseases, he practiced hypnosis to cure the sick of hysteria in the Salpetriere Hospital in Paris. The French government awarded him a scholarship to Freud to go one year to study in Paris and there he could see how some women paralyzed with hysterical syndrome, rose during Charcot's hypnosis sessions. Check that there is a mental level that continues to operate in the unconscious, even while under the influence of hypnosis.
With his friend Joseph Breuer , who also had a consultation in Vienna, is how Freud made his way to the Psychoanalysis. Breuer was one patient, Anna O.had fainting, tachycardia, and skin problems, but thanks to hypnosis these symptoms were reduced or even disappeared. What produced these problems in the patient were sexual abuse he suffered as a child by a relative. It was from here that Freud said that behind every psychological problem there is another sexual problem.
For Freud, the mind has three subsystems: theconscious or what we are thinking, the preconsciouswhich is what there is in the conscious, but at any time can be and the unconscious that is hidden and not allow our minds to surface, only exits through dreams, we make mistakes inadvertently free associations or under hypnosis. He said that mental processes are in themselves unconscious and conscious processes are but isolated acts or fractions of full mental life. This statement is related to the second principle which classifies certain instinctual sexual urges. According to Freud the libido is the driving force that represents the sexual instinct, energy all the emotions related to the term we call love . The evolution of libido in man passes through four stages from birth: oral, sadistic, anal and phallic .
Another mindset that Freud describes three instances from denomionadas , ego and super-ego . Of these, the deepest part of the psyche is the id, in which lies all inherited, instinctual drives and prefers the "pleasure principle". It is entirely unconscious. The ego is the "reality principle" is conscious and has the function of reality testing, and the regulation and control of desires and impulses provinientes id. Later, I give birth to the super-ego, which is the internal representative of authority and parental norms and received education and society in general, has a field with a conscious unconscious.
The Depth Psychology
| Within the alternatives appear to Psychoanalysis Freud's work by his disciples, among which is located Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Viennese physician specializing in ophthalmology and also Jewish psychoanalysis was incorporated in 1902, but in 1911 Adler creates its own psychoanalytic system based on the importance of compensation , when something about us fails or does not satisfy us, we tend to compensate, the aim is to make the complex we have. The most studied complex in Europe is that of inferiority, offset psychologically creating a superiority complex, so that both mechanisms, inferiority-superiority often occur together. Adler called Individual Psychology Psychoanalysis to differentiate where the most important thing is the individual person and how it is integrated into the society in the best way possible. Another important point to this author is the environmental situation in which the person moves and the goals or objectives that the person intends, allowing their own integration. These objectives should require an effort, without being either very difficult to achieve, because if not achieved result in frustration. |
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist who was impressed by the theories of Freud. They became close friends, and Freud believed that Jung would be the unquestionable heir of the intellectual leadership of the psychoanalytic movement. There was a difference between age of almost twenty years, Freud and Jung began treating almost as an adopted child. 1910 Jung became the first president of the International Psychoanalytical Association. Later, Jung began to disagree with Freud on various theoretical points and performed original work on the theory of personality, founding his own school of psychology. Replaced the concept of Freudian sexual libido by that of energy . It also defines people as introverts (with intense inner life, they like to be alone) and extroverts (easy to connect with others who like to be in the company). Another important concept is that of including individual and the collective unconscious, the latter is inherited, ideas we already have to be born and that is within us at an unconscious level. It's a nativist psychology.
Parallel to the work of Freud's work of French born Pierre Janet (1859-1947), who is not a psychoanalyst.Study sleepwalking and the persons whom called disintegrated , they do not have an ego that unify, but there are several core personality, hobbies these people become obsessive ideas beyond their control. Attaches great importance to feelings. He says that what we all want is to feel loved in order to achieve a balance of personality psycho. What more personality disintegrates and creates further trauma are sentimental crises or couple. If others do not accept us or not like us, either we will love us. Janet gives great importance toemotional intelligence and empathy.
E dward Tickner (1867-1962) was born in Chichester (England). He went to Germany to study in Wundt's laboratory, where they make a psychology of experience. In the laboratory study the feelings, the smallest part of human behavior or experience. To study the behavior Tickner should have three parts: the study of the anatomy of the brain (Physiological Psychology), the study of the function or purpose of behavior (Functional Psychology) and the psychological study of human development (Psychology). This is called structuralism .
On the other side is the functionalism of the hand ofJohn Dewey (1859-1949), which ensures that adaptation is very important for life, as the world changes so fast that you do not fit can not keep up, leaving marginalized. It states that the purpose of thought is simply to solve problems. From here on out the behaviorism and cognitivism .
Considered the founder of behaviorism , John Broadus Watson (1878-1958), throughout his life he was an enemy of the ideas vague and sloppy research. He believed that Freud's theories were very vague. According to him, out of the dark and gloomy paths of speculative philosophy and psychology opinion be followed the way of behaviorism, school of psychology for which the concept of consciousness was neither useful nor necessary in the description, explanation, prediction and behavior control.
Watson proposed for psychology an ambitious research program, emphasizing data collection by well designed experiments. He understood that the purpose of this science was able to predict the response of an organism to a given stimulus. This is sometimes called "stimulus-response psychology" (Psychology ER). This psychology pays little attention to the thoughts and feelings. The prestige that gave Watson enjoyed a remarkable impetus to the study of learning, making it one of the major areas of contemporary psychology. He was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1915.
Another important figure of behaviorism was Burrhus Frederic Skinner , born in 1904 in Susquehanna, a town in northeastern Pennsylvania. He attended Hamilton College animal behavior. Says that psychology is an experimental branch of natural science, where it is possible to control and predict the behavior if done under direct observation and experimental conditions of stimulus-response. Want entirely disregard consciousness and introspection of Psychoanalysis.
A pioneer in the experimental analysis of human behavior, along with other intellectuals of the time he founded the magazine " Journal of the Analysis of Behavior ". Professor at Harvard University since 1948, introduced in the program of lectures a course on Science and Human Behavior . He was the discoverer of operant conditioning.
Skinner is also known for the number of inventions that belong to the "psychological technology" as a controlled environment for the study of children, guided missile system by pigeons, the operant conditioning apparatus known as "Skinner box" and the "teaching machine".
In formal theories do not apply at all common sense conceptions, according to which every human being is conscious and autonomous. In one of his books, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971), argues that the concept of autonomous man, which essentially means that human beings have free will, has expired, it is not useful to predict and control the behavior. Says that behavior is shaped by its consequences.
The Gestalt psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), German psychologist, was the creator of Gestalt psychology. While teaching at the University of Frankfurt conducted the first experiment of this new psychology. This experiment was based on the apparent movement phenomenon, which he called fi phenomenon . The fi phenomenon occurs every time we attended a film screening: a series of photos isolated static movement perception acquire if they are presented in a certain way. Using a tachistoscope to this end, could prove that the phenomenon depended fi critical time intervals, and what is more important, he said he could not explain from isolated sensory elements or any other series of psychological elements. It was an irreducible experience, in which the Gestalt or full configuration preceded the parties. With this argument openly opposed the school of structuralism and the teachings of Wilhelm Wundt.
Wertheimer established a series of laws of perceptual organization based on perceptual organizations are innate. Our tendency to perceive objects configuration mode or organized wholes is a given element, which comes from the way the human nervous system processes the data. Gestalt psychology, then, is based primarily on the doctrine of nativism.
| Another personality that gave rise to the Gestalt psychology was the German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1957). He emigrated to the United States before the outbreak of the Second World War and continued his teaching career at Swarthmore College. Helped establish the concept of learning by Introvision . In his book "The mentality of apes" , published in 1925, describes experiments with monkeys on the island of Tenerife during the First World War. Showed that apes learn from wholes and parts, and argued that what is true for you is much more apes to humans, thus rebuking behaviorists with their way of conceiving mechanical sick human learning. |
Cognitive Psychology In current psychology is taking place "cognitive revolution", reborn interest in cognition, concept formation and thinking. Much of this enthusiasm is attributed to the influence of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), famous Swiss scientist who worked for many years in France. When he died he was the most famous and prominent child psychologist worldwide. He was for many years director Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute in Geneva. Piaget claimed that children's thinking is very different characteristics from that of adults. With the maturing are a series of substantial changes in the modes of thinking that Piaget called metamorphosis , is a transformation of the modes of thought of the children to become adults themselves in so deep that could be compared to the one with caterpillar to become a butterfly.
To explore the thought processes of children, Piaget turned to the phenomenological method . This method is inherently subjective and demand an interpretation by the researcher. The exploration of Piaget's cognitive development was the most profitable way to make contributions to epistemology. This development is the growth that has the intellect in the course of time, the maturation of higher thinking processes from childhood to adulthood.
According to Piaget, cognitive development stages are: 1) sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) where children show a lively and intense curiosity about the world around them, their behavior is dominated by responses to stimuli, 2 ) preoperational stage (2-7 years) in which the child's thinking is magical and egocentric, believe that magic can produce events and fairy tales |
| they are attractive, and it is believed the center of all events, that all things revolve around him, resultándole very hard to see things from another point of view, 3)concrete operational stage (7-11 years), the child's thinking is literal and concrete, can understand that 8 +11 = 19, but the abstract formulation, as an algebraic equation, exceeds his grasp, and 4) formal operational stage in the adult level, is capable of perform abstractions and make high (11-15 years), the child enters inferences here is the step corresponding to the higher faculties of human beings. |
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